BORIS BURDA: What Men Think About
Rodney Smith. Happy Spring! / instagram.com
ATTENTION — QUESTION!
Research conducted using tomography has shown that when a man is asked to think about nothing, he focuses on two things. Can you name them?
ATTENTION — CORRECT ANSWER!
Sex and football, of course. That was probably too easy, wasn’t it?
AN OPAQUE HUMAN
A
jellyfish, of course, is far from being the pinnacle of creation, but it does have some advantages (even compared to humans). Jellyfish are pretty transparent creatures; everything inside them is clearly visible from the outside. If a jellyfish, heaven forbid, were to develop something abnormal or extraneous, it would be immediately noticeable. If jellyfish had doctors, they would undoubtedly appreciate this convenience.
Humans are more complicated. They are more like a «black box» — a term that emerged about a century ago in systems engineering to describe a system whose internal workings are unknown. All that’s known is what goes into the system and what comes out, while how the system processes inputs into outputs remains a complex mystery.
Since ancient times, doctors have approached patients as if they were «black boxes». If an undesirable output signal appeared — say, abdominal pain, specifically on the right side — it wasn’t possible to see the cause because it lay beneath the skin, out of sight. The solution was to try introducing a beneficial input signal — perhaps a decoction of some herb — and see if it helped. But which herb?
Being able to see what lies beneath the skin would have been invaluable. Yet, for a long time, even exploring such questions was forbidden. Performing autopsies on corpses was considered a sin. The first dissection authorized by the Vatican was carried out by Mondino de Luzzi in 1315. Before that, everyone relied on Galen, who famously claimed that men had more ribs and teeth than women.
SEMI-TRANSPARENCY
After overcoming church prohibitions, anatomical theaters gained popularity, albeit in a way that seems quite strange to us today. In some countries, they have become fascinating social events that are considered praiseworthy for educated individuals to attend. However, uncertainties about which side of the body housed the liver and which the spleen came to an end — everything became visible.
The structure of the human body was studied using various methods. For example, Nikolay Pirogov froze corpses, sliced them, and examined them layer by layer. His work resulted in detailed anatomical atlases, which laid the foundation for topographic anatomy — a necessary but notoriously difficult discipline that terrified students (my mother, a medical professional, feared it immensely).
It became largely transparent what was hidden beneath the skin of a healthy person. But what about a sick person? They could develop ulcers, tumors, or inflammations — yet these were impossible to see directly! They could only be inferred through indirect signs. By observing the «output signals» of the «black box», so to speak — fluids, solids, temperature, respiration, and heartbeat. It was something, but not enough.
Many hoped that Roentgen’s miraculous invention would make humans transparent. Indeed, it revealed a great deal — bones and soft tissues could be distinguished clearly, and tubercular lesions in the lungs could be detected long before more obvious symptoms appeared. Yet many pathological conditions, including some of the most dangerous, remained invisible to X-rays.
THE KEYMASTER AND TASKMASTER
The problem with X-rays was their two-dimensional nature. Each section of an X-ray image represents the cumulative absorption levels of all tissue layers along the ray’s path. However, doctors urgently needed to see a three-dimensional view — especially to identify volumetric abnormalities within the body. But how could such a view be achieved?
If multiple two-dimensional images of an object are taken from various angles, its three-dimensional structure can be inferred. This idea was even given a Greek-derived scientific name: «tomography», meaning «layered recording». Yet the question remained: what mathematical apparatus could transform numerous 2D images into a coherent 3D model?
A prominent scientist once explained to me that solving complex problems typically requires two kinds of specialists: a key master and a taskmaster. The key master possesses expertise in an advanced mathematical method but doesn’t know where to apply it. The taskmaster identifies a practical problem and searches for a key master who can solve it. Both are vital for success.
For the challenge of constructing 3D images from 2D slices, the keymaster arrived before the taskmaster. In 1917, Austrian mathematician Johann Radon developed an integral transformation for functions of multiple variables, perfectly suited to this problem. However, his work remained overlooked for decades — no taskmaster emerged to connect it to a real-world application…
CORMACK AND HOUNSFIELD
The same goal often has multiple paths leading to it. In 1963, South African mathematician Allan Cormack, working in the United States, solved the same problem as Johann Radon but took a slightly different approach. Over time, Cormack had better luck than Radon — new advancements enabled previously unthinkable challenges to be tackled.
In 1969, English engineer Godfrey Hounsfield brought the idea of computed tomography to life in a device he called the «EMI scanner». The name paid homage to EMI Records, the recording company that earned so much from its contract with The Beatles that it could fund this groundbreaking project. See, good music not only brings joy but can also lead to significant innovations!
The first EMI scanner, designed exclusively for head scans, didn’t work perfectly at first — test trials on cow heads produced chaotic results. However, when Hounsfield switched suppliers, opting for a kosher butcher, everything started to fall into place. It turned out that traditional kosher slaughter preserved the brain, whereas modern methods using an electric shock to the head caused damage.
The device’s debut in medicine was so successful that, by 1979 (remarkably fast!), Cormack and Hounsfield were awarded the Nobel Prize for the development of computed tomography (CT). Hounsfield was recognized for the machine itself, and Cormack for the mathematical framework that made it possible. This is what happens when the keymaster and the taskmaster find each other!
NEW TYPES AND POSSIBILITIES
Just a few years later, a new form of tomography emerged based on the physical phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). This method earned its creators, Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield, the Nobel Prize in 2003. It offered the advantage of avoiding excessive X-ray exposure, which could harm patients.
Initially, the method was called NMR tomography. However, by the time it was introduced in the mid-1980s — following the Chornobyl disaster — a powerful wave of radiophobia had swept the world. Activists in Moscow even picketed the first such scanner, armed with Geiger counters. To avoid further controversy, the device was simply renamed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Today, both CT and MRI are widely used, each with its advantages. However, their use comes with specific challenges. For example, tomography is contraindicated for people with metallic implants. Even tattoos can interfere with results, as most inks contain heavy metal salts.
To enhance imaging, contrast agents are often injected into a patient’s bloodstream. But for individuals with conditions like kidney failure, this can be dangerous. In such cases, scans can be performed without contrast, albeit with reduced quality. Obese patients are sometimes turned away simply because they cannot fit into a standard scanner.
Diagnostics isn’t the only application for tomography. For instance, these devices can function as lie detectors — lying requires more incredible brain energy, which is measurable. Tomography has also been used by historians to uncover mysteries, such as revealing that King Tutankhamun likely died from a blow to the head, suggesting he was murdered.
Tomography can even «read» ancient scrolls without unrolling them, preserving their fragile condition. Recently, tomography helped uncover the secrets of Stradivarius violins. And its contributions to medicine are so indispensable that it’s hard to imagine how we managed without it before.
So, there’s no need to envy jellyfish — thanks to tomography, we’re all transparent!
When copying materials, please place an active link to www.huxley.media
Select the text and press Ctrl + Enter
