Neurophysiologist Oleksii Verkhratsky on the Role of Science in the Development of Intelligence

Oleksii Verkhratskyi. Neurophysiologist, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor at the University of Manchester, Vice President of the European Academy of Sciences

 

Neurophysiologist Oleksii Verkhratskyi is one of the most cited scientists of Ukrainian origin in the world. His Hirsch index stands at 86 — several times higher than that of the most successful Ukrainian researchers.

Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor at the University of Manchester, Full Member and Vice President of the European Academy of Sciences, member of the influential German Academy of Sciences, as well as the Polish Academy and several other national academies of sciences, Honorary Professor at multiple universities — the full list of Professor Verkhratskyi’s honors is hard to enumerate.

Born in Stanislav (now Ivano-Frankivsk), he has made a significant contribution to global science and currently lives in the United Kingdom, maintaining strong ties with his Ukrainian colleagues.

 

THE PATH TO GLOBAL SCIENCE

 

I come from a family of hereditary doctors and scientists. My grandfather, grandmother, and parents were all professors of medicine and researchers; my grandfather, Serhii Verkhratskyi, was a renowned surgeon and medical historian, while my father, Nestor, and my mother, Nina, both headed departments at the Institute of Gerontology in Kyiv. The brother of my great-grandfather, Ivan Verkhratskyi, was a well-known naturalist and zoologist from Lviv, a linguist, one of the founders of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv, and the first head of its Mathematical, Natural, and Medical Sciences Section.

As early as my second year at medical school, I began working at the Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, where several departments focused on brain research. For some time, I tried to pursue a scientific career in my homeland. In the early 1990s, it was still possible to secure fairly substantial grants by Ukrainian standards; I had grants from the Wellcome Trust, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, and VolkswagenStiftung — amounting to about $1 million in total.

However, I faced many challenges: customs issues when importing equipment, a lack of prospects for students and postgraduate researchers, and the need to take on tasks unrelated to science. At some point, I grew tired of it.

In 1995, I left — initially invited to Germany and then to England, where I currently work. Today, I spend about six months a year traveling and collaborating with many colleagues. I have lived in different countries, worked for seven years as a visiting professor in Japan — teaching annually for a month in Fukuoka — and I am a visiting professor at several universities in China. I also teach in Turkey, supervise laboratories in Spain and Lithuania, and actively collaborate with Italian researchers.

 

 

THE HUMAN BRAIN IN NUMBERS

 

The human brain is undoubtedly the most complex system ever encountered by the natural sciences. The brain consists of approximately 200 billion cells (100 billion neurons and another 100 billion supporting cells, known as neuroglial cells, along with endothelial cells and blood vessel cells). These cells are interconnected by about 100 trillion connections, all packed into a volume of roughly 1.5 liters (0.0016 m³) inside our skull.

We require about 300–400 calories (or 12 W/h) of energy per day to meet the brain’s energy needs. As a computing device, the brain has a working memory capacity of over 2.5 petabytes, and this memory is constantly reorganized thanks to brain plasticity and the formation of new neural connections. The human brain’s processing power is around one exaflop, equivalent to a billion billion calculations per second.

One of the fastest supercomputers in the world — Tianhe-2 in Guangzhou (China) — has a maximum processing speed of 54.902 petaflops, which is an order of magnitude lower. This supercomputer consumes 17.6 megawatts of electricity and occupies 720 m² of space. Its volume is hard to estimate, but it is likely no less than 1500 m³.

In other words, humanity currently has no technologies even close to matching the capabilities of the human brain.

 

BRAIN AND DISEASES

 

The main problem arises when this magnificent machine falls out of balance. Unfortunately, at present, we are unable to cure brain diseases — at best, we can only alleviate some of the symptoms. We also do not know why these diseases occur. We have learned to manage some vascular pathologies (for example, by removing blood clots).

However, the regeneration of damaged areas remains a mystery. For instance, rehabilitation after strokes affecting the white matter (the myelinated axons that transmit signals from the motor cortex, among others) is currently impossible. Brain pathology and its correction are precisely the topics I have been working on in recent years.

 

ON EXPANDING THE BOUNDARIES OF NORMALITY

 

There is a lot of discussion today about panic attacks. They have always existed and are most likely a subtype of the «fight or flight» response, but in the past, they were not diagnosed as psychiatric issues. The same applies to autism. Diagnoses of autism have increased dozens, if not hundreds, of times over the past 50 years. And not all individuals diagnosed with autism are truly ill.

Difficulties in social communication (one of the main symptoms of autism spectrum disorders) are not necessarily the result of pathological changes; human behavior is diverse, and the boundaries of what is considered normal are constantly shifting. A diagnosis can sometimes do more harm than good, negatively affecting the lives of these individuals. It can lead to stigmatization and labeling, which must be approached very carefully.

The same caution applies to panic attacks. They immediately acquire a negative connotation — implying the presence of mental health problems. On the other hand, panic attacks can be symptoms of anxiety disorders, which, without doubt, require close attention as bona fide psychiatric illnesses.

 

SOME DISCOVERIES THAT COULD CHANGE THE WORLD

 

From my point of view, the most exciting development today in the field of neurophysiology is the ability to control brain cells using light — the so-called optogenetics. In nature, there exists a class of molecules called opsins, which change their conformation and function under the influence of light; similar molecules (after appropriate modification) can be specifically expressed in certain brain cells. Stimulating these cells with light (for example, through implanted optical fibers) makes it possible to activate identified groups of neurons or even individual neurons. This allows researchers to map how they influence the behavior of an organism.

For me, this technology (just like brain imaging) represents a revival of phrenology on a new, higher level. Despite its flawed brain mapping, phrenology was a fundamental discovery that postulated the localization of brain functions. Of course, it is too early to speak about how optogenetics could be used to influence the human brain, but the potential possibilities are quite fantastic — for instance, the direct «merging» with computing machines or peripheral devices.

 

 

BRAIN PREVENTIONBRAIN PREVENTION

 

When a person is born, their brain is like a computer with a few instinctual programs installed by nature. Education, especially in the early years of life, plays a colossal role. It enables our «computer» to begin functioning productively.

In my view, this initial brain training largely depends on the family rather than the school. Development that starts literally from birth is what distinguishes people with abilities in science or art from everyone else. In reality, schools teach how to follow orders, not how to think beyond the ordinary.

To keep the brain in good shape, first and foremost, a balanced diet is extremely important (just as it is for the entire body — after all, the brain and body cannot truly be separated), ensuring all necessary nutrients are included, particularly proteins. Switching, for example, to veganism or vegetarianism is not the best option for the brain. Second, physical exercise. Third, mental exercise — and not passive, but active (!) mental engagement. That means not just reading a book, but reading thoughtfully, with analysis of what has been read.

It is always fascinating to return to the old works of neuroanatomists and neurophysiologists. For instance, in one’s leisure time, one can read Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the Nobel Prize laureate in Physiology who laid the foundations of modern neuroscience. He recognized that at the cellular level, there is a flow of information that moves from the periphery to the center and then returns to the executive organs.

Equally captivating are the classical works of Ivan Sechenov, especially his Reflexes of the Brain. Sechenov very precisely identified the ultimate outcome of all brain activity — which is muscle contraction.

«Whether a child laughs at the sight of a toy, Garibaldi smiles when persecuted for his excessive love of his homeland, a young woman trembles at her first thought of love, or Newton formulates the laws of the universe and records them on paper — everywhere the final fact is muscular movement.»

I assure you, all of this is incredibly interesting and engaging reading, even for the uninitiated. One must compel the brain to remain productive.

The brain is subject to training. When a person is born, it is like a computer with a limited set of programs installed by nature, responsible for instincts, which are also governed by the brain. All further development depends on intellectual training, information enrichment, and learning how to analyze that information.

In fact, only a small number of people use their brains to create new knowledge (which is the primary function of intelligence) — the use of the brain requires constant learning, constant thinking, and, most importantly, constant creativity. I am afraid that most people use their brains merely as a utilitarian tool: they prefer survival, adaptation, and submission over being creative individuals and building their own lives independently.

 

EVOLUTION OR DEGRADATION

 

Technological progress brings both opportunities and threats to humanity. We are witnessing a shift in the socio-political structure that reflects changes in the means of production. This transformation will take the next 30–40 years.

Already today, many specialists are no longer needed, and as technologies advance, even more professions will disappear. I am not convinced that we are capable of creating «artificial intelligence.» Computers, no matter how powerful, are executors, not creators. What we call AI essentially consists of new algorithms for collecting and analyzing data. As usual, data can be used for a wide variety of purposes: for instance, social media provides vast amounts of data that, once properly analyzed, make it even easier to manipulate humanity.

In addition, there is a clear replacement of intellectual labor with the mindless use of various devices (smartphones and virtual spaces are prime examples of substituting reality for millions). What I fear most is that instead of gaining artificial intelligence, we might lose our natural one.

 

CAN A GENIUS BE RECOGNIZED?

 

It is impossible to identify a genius based on the structure of the brain. The renowned American researcher Margaret Diamond, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, received four fragments of Albert Einstein’s brain in 1955. She noticed certain changes, but later studies revealed that they were associated with aging. Thus, there is no significant difference between the brain of a genius and that of an ordinary person.

Is it possible to extend the life of a genius brain separately from the body if normal circulation of oxygen and nutrients is maintained? We all remember Alexander Belyaev’s novel Professor Dowell’s Head. Today, this idea is no longer pure fantasy — when a person is placed in a state of clinical death, something very similar occurs.

A massive machine replaces the heart, pumping blood through all the organs and systems, including the brain. Attempts to transplant a head from one person to another are being discussed. I am not very confident that such procedures will succeed. In any case, rejection will inevitably occur over time, so I see little sense in pursuing it.

 

 

BRAIN AND MARIJUANA

 

The human brain has its own form of «marijuana» — represented by endocannabinoids, which are neuromodulators released by brain cells. Understanding the mechanisms of endocannabinoid activity could help in developing new treatments for glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, or pain disorders.

As for marijuana used recreationally or medicinally — everything depends on its application and dosage. As Paracelsus once said, «Sola dosis facit venenum» (only the dose makes the poison). For instance, in Parkinson’s disease, small doses of marijuana may have a beneficial effect. Of course, everything depends on the amount, but abuse of marijuana can lead to brain degradation and mental health disorders.

 

PROSPECTS FOR UKRAINIAN SCIENCE

 

For science to develop, a society must have a certain degree of freedom. In the post-Soviet space, this freedom does not exist. Additionally, resources are essential. In the field of life sciences alone, about 1 million articles are published annually. It is clear that 80% of them are either informational noise, confirmations of already known facts, or minor discoveries. Yet, collectively, they create the critical mass that drives science forward.

Today, the leaders in scientific research are the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Japan. China is rapidly catching up with them. In the United States, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) supports medical research with an annual budget of $30 billion. I believe that direct spending on fundamental research in America amounts to several hundred billion dollars each year.

Throughout Ukraine’s entire existence, resources have not been invested in science. Therefore, it must be acknowledged that there is no real scientific system in Ukraine — there are only individual talented people.

And, of course, the organization of science in Ukraine remains an absolute relic of the Soviet Union. Various structures, from the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) to ministerial academies, are bastions of stagnation and ignorance; as long as NASU exists, science in Ukraine will not be possible.

There are chances for the development of science, but this would require a redistribution of resources. First, are these resources available? Second, does the political establishment understand how essential this is? The level of a country’s intelligence depends on fundamental science.

The best universities in the world are simultaneously engaged in both research and education, because these processes are interconnected. Professors continually improve their qualifications and provide better instruction to students. In Ukrainian higher education, however, professors often lack the necessary level of knowledge and show little interest in what is happening in the scientific world.

Nevertheless, regardless of the country, the quality of education at both the school and university levels is rapidly declining. Universities are turning into institutions that issue diplomas rather than impart knowledge. Mass education undermines the very idea of education, which should be highly selective and individualized. Only a tiny percentage of people are capable of developing true intellectual abilities that make them creative individuals. Just as there cannot be a mass of brilliant opera singers, there likewise cannot be a large number of outstanding scientists.

 

 

LA VITA E BELLA

 

As for «inspiration,» its primary source is life itself — La Vita è Bella («Life is beautiful» in Italian). I love what I do. I spend many hours writing every day, and I enjoy it (I truly am a bit of a graphomaniac).

I love classical music and classical literature, and I collect European engravings from the 16th–17th centuries as well as Japanese woodblock prints (ukiyo-e — images of the floating world) from the Edo period through Taishō and early Shōwa. In Japanese visual art of the 1920s–1930s, there was a remarkable Art Nouveau style known as Shin-hanga. I also collect old books, facsimiles, and special editions, and I live in and with them. I love my wife, and we usually travel together. All of this brings the joy of life, which, perhaps, can be called «happiness.»

At the moment, I dream of completing a book on the mechanisms of diseases, Principles of Gliopathology. It is the culmination of 20 years of work. Our nervous system consists of two types of cells: neurons, responsible for execution functions (processing information and generating behavior), and glial cells, which support the vital activity of neurons. The number of each type is approximately the same — about 100 billion.

Most likely, the majority of diseases are pathologies of these homeostatic cells. This theory has been developing over the past 15–20 years. Now, I am creating a comprehensive concept and dedicating a significant part of my energy and effort to it — or more precisely, not spending, but deriving immense pleasure from it.

To do in life what you truly want is a rare and enormous privilege.

 

Interview conducted by: Viktor Halasiuk and Zhanna Kryuchkova

 

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