FOOD AND THE «WAY OF BEING»: We Are Still What We Eat!
Steven Shapin (born September 11, 1943) is an American historian and sociologist. He is a Professor Emeritus of the History of Science at Harvard University. Shapin’s early research focused on the institutional aspects of science in Scotland and England. Still, more recently, he has been writing about the history of food, taste, and practices of subjectivity / wikipedia.org
Even Hippocrates formulated this idea: we are what we eat! People have long observed that their well-being depends on their diet. However, this knowledge was valuable not only for developing dietary recommendations. It also addressed the existential question, «Who are we?» Steven Shapin explores this theme in his new book, Food and Being: A History of Ideas About Our Food and Ourselves, published in 2024.
REVOLUTION IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF FOOD
This September, American historian and sociologist Steven Shapin turned 81 years old. It is remarkable how this scholar remains in excellent cognitive shape, continuing to surprise the world with his books. And the Doctor of Philosophy and Honorary Professor at Harvard certainly has a lot to share.
Shapin is primarily known for his research in the history of science, particularly the Enlightenment era, the so-called «long 18th century», which does not align precisely with the calendar. This era was marked by a shift in cultural paradigms, along with changes in scientific, philosophical, and social thought.
Shapin demonstrates how ancient Greek ideas laid the foundation for Western understandings of food and European identity. Dietetic philosophy, rooted in antiquity, has proven surprisingly enduring. It provided the groundwork for the development of 18th-century medical thought, which emphasized rationalism.
Medicine asserted that food shapes not only the substance of the body but also the psyche. A person’s temperament was believed to be determined by the balance of four bodily humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. The balance of these fluids defined personality types — phlegmatic, sanguine, melancholic, and choleric.
FOOD AS A «WAY OF BEING»
At that time, medical science extended beyond its conventional boundaries, constructing a «way of being» and attempting to formulate principles for «right living». To achieve an ideal psycho-physical state, one was advised to practice moderation in physical exercise, sleep, bodily excretions, emotions, and diet.
In modern times, food is understood as a building material through which individuals model their bodies and minds. Thus, the history of food appears as the history of a «self-creating» substance. This concept is the foundation of modern practices of self-construction.
The focus on rationality and individualism assumes that dietary principles are accessible to everyone. Each person, by virtue of reason, can act as their own physician. To do this, one must possess sufficient self-awareness and refined taste to select foods whose properties correspond to their temperament.
Take, for example, a phlegmatic person — someone with an excess of cold and moist phlegm. They should avoid cold and moist foods like cucumbers and instead incorporate spicy onions into their diet. Conversely, a choleric person with an excess of hot and dry yellow bile should avoid onions altogether.
WHY DID SHAKESPEARE’S HERO RECOMMEND DRINKING SHERRY?
Today, we might find it surprising to read about the «human-forming» properties of certain foods in William Shakespeare’s plays. However, for the playwright’s contemporaries, these ideas were familiar and relatable. Like Shakespeare, they believed that edible products influence the body’s substance and shape a person’s character.
In Henry IV, Falstaff eloquently describes how good sherry «dries out the brain». It is beneficial because it clears the mind of murky vapors, thereby enhancing quick thinking — an essential trait for wit. The conclusion? If you want to be known as a sharp conversationalist — drink sherry!
Dietary thinking at the time classified people by personality types, each associated with specific behaviors. These behaviors could be either moral or immoral — depending on what one consumed. Changes in diet were believed to have the power to transform a less virtuous person into a highly moral being.
For example, Shakespeare’s Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew deprives his choleric bride of meat to transform a fiery-tempered woman into a virtuous wife. So, dear reader, if you’re facing communication issues at home, why not give Shakespeare’s recipe a try? Who knows — it just might work!
FOOD AND THE MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE WORLD
Starting in the 17th century, dietary thought began to play an increasingly significant role in shaping the modern sense of «self». However, the mechanistic worldview introduced by Galileo and Newton transformed dietetics itself. Food was no longer seen merely as a carrier of specific qualities but as being composed of micro-particles.
Initially, the humoral qualities — hot, cold, moist, and dry — acquired synonyms in sensory terms: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. Gradually, the chemical vocabulary of acids, alkalis, and salts became common to both scientists and laypeople.
Chemistry steadily claimed a central role in redefining food and its properties, which humans could now use for «self-creation». By the 19th century, understanding the composition and properties of food had fully shifted into the scientific domain.
From then on, only scientists could decipher how the «building blocks» of the body — proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins — functioned. The «image» of the stomach also changed. Once perceived as a «kitchen», it was now viewed as a «laboratory», where chemical reactions broke food down into its components. It was recognized that these processes generated heat inside the body.
HOW MEAT TRIUMPHED OVER CORN
In physics, force is measured in newtons. From the 1890s onward, an equivalent unit — calories — was introduced to measure the energy value of food. Calories represented the «force» present in all foods, making them interchangeable.
Previously, people relied on taste to distinguish food components and select appropriate options to maintain balance. Now, balance was reinterpreted as the metabolic equation of energy intake versus expenditure.
In this new, chemical world, humans were no longer the best judges of what was good for them. Perceptions of the relationship between food and morality also shifted. Nutritional tables categorized foods not by personality temperament but by occupational needs.
Temperament ultimately yielded to socio-economic roles. A miner required more protein and calories than a housewife. In capitalism, the primary goal of any activity became productivity. A «good person» was someone who ate in accordance with their role — to maximize output.
The 19th century, the age of capitalism, closely linked science with trade and empire. European imperial dominance was justified, in part, by differences in dietary habits. Europeans, benefiting from protein-rich meat diets, were seen as stronger and thus capable of ruling over «weaker» nations that subsisted on corn and rice.
WHEN TASTE LOST ITS INNOCENCE
Today, science tends to view food through the physiological functions of its chemical components. The modern term «diet» is mostly associated with calorie-restrictive eating plans rather than holistic health programs. Yet even contemporary dietary recommendations remain steeped in morality and ideology.
If you are virtuous enough to follow them, you can expect the reward of a long and healthy life. Food continues to serve as a moral and ideological substance. For many, food production carries moral obligations because of its impact on climate change.
Movements advocating for local food sources challenge corporate standardization promoted by global capitalism. Unlike earlier times, the modern world has taught us not to trust our taste.
The food industry manipulates flavors and combinations of fat, salt, and sugar to create products that make people crave what is harmful to them.
AMERICAN FOOD: ALMOST LIKE SHAKESPEARE!
Once upon a time, Shakespeare’s characters’ eating habits guided audiences in assessing their temperaments. But isn’t the same true today — only on a much larger scale — in a world the great playwright often compared to a theater?
During the last U.S. presidential election, Democratic candidate Kamala Harris proudly recalled working at McDonald’s in college, frying French fries. «Can you imagine Donald Trump working at McDonald’s?» her supporters asked.
The Republican candidate’s response was swift. Trump visited a McDonald’s in Pennsylvania, donned an apron instead of a suit jacket, cooked several portions of fries, and handed them out through the service window. «I could do this all day! I love McDonald’s!» he declared.
As we can see, food remains a marker of moral and value-based choices. It is far from neutral, as our dietary behavior continues to be deeply intertwined with how we perceive ourselves and the world.
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